An interesting discussion took place in 1877 against the backdrop of the Great Famine in South India among some of the colonial officials involved in the relief efforts. One of the topics of discussion was contrasting the nature of charity in India’s Hindu and European/English Christian societies, and changes that would occur with the proposed evangelization of India. The discussion brought out some interesting features of Indian society that have not been given prominence in current times.
The author noted that Indians were naturally highly charitable due to the influence of their religion, a trait that would disappear with the inevitable Christianization of India.
‘ It is not a little startling to think,’ said one member of the General Committee of the Monegar Choultry, Madras, to another, during an enforced pause in the business meeting held in July 1877, ‘that if India becomes Christianised, if all the people become converted to what the missionaries teach, a Poor Law will be a necessary consequence.’
‘ That is startling,’ was the reply, ‘ but why should such a result necessarily follow? ‘
‘ Reasoning by analogy,’ responded the first speaker, ‘ such must be the case. In all the Christian countries of Europe the poor are supported by the State. In India they are supported by the people themselves—their relatives generally, or, if they are religious mendicants or professional beggars, by those of their own religion. The Hindoo religion inculcates the utmost benevolence, and, as a consequence, that is done voluntarily here which elsewhere, in Christian countries for instance, is done by the Government.’
‘ Yes; the family system in this land leads to much generosity, and to the support of many poor relatives by those who earn only trifling wages. I know one member of this Committee, present in the meeting at this moment, who himself has been providing food for thirty-five people daily since the famine began.’
— The Famine Campaign, Vol II, William Digby, 1878
The author also compared the advantages of organized Anglican charity to the less effective individual charity of the Hindus, concluding that millions that survived the famine would have perished if not for the Christian government.
From a Hindu point of view the exercise of private charity in time of distress is a duty incumbent upon everyone who has the means wherewith to help his brother. In normal times there are no people on the face of the earth more given to charity than the Hindus. Proof of this is found in the fact that whilst every nation in Europe has had to devise some system of Poor Law administration whereby to relieve its necessitous poor, no approach to anything of the kind has been found necessary in India. …
It would be a calamity indescribable if Christianity were to bring to India the English Poor Law, and yet it seems clear that this is one sure and certain result of Anglican Christianity transplanted en bloc. … The Hindu family system has in it much of good, but it cannot continue in the presence of English Christianity. The system would be unsuited to Anglo-Saxon practice, but it does not follow that it is out of place in the body politic of another people. The benevolence strongly inculcated by the Sastras and other sacred works, though disfigured oftentimes by the feeding, as an act of merit, of lazy people who ought to be made to work—in this respect sharing the evils of official benevolence in England—has yet in it so much of good that surely Christianity could embrace these things while undermining the faiths of which they now form a part.
These narrations highlight an interesting facet of Indian or Hindu culture that is absent in any current discussion, namely the centrality of charity and altruism. There is little mention of charity either by those that view India positively or see it as a flawed and exploitative society. Now, it is true that all Indian religions – all denominations of Hindu, Buddhist, Jain, Sikh – emphasize the importance of charity. Religious texts such as Puranas and the Vedas emphasize universal kindness and charity, and provide several guidelines. The Skanda Purana, for instance, has a dialogue between the sage Narada and Arjuna which describes several types of charity and gift-giving, categorized by intent and the nature of the gifts. But we also know that there was a considerable difference between what was prescribed in Indian religious books and what was actually practiced. So, what was the reality i.e., the actual practice? What did outsiders such as William Digby witness that led them to conclude about the ubiquitous presence of charity in the Indian/Hindu culture?
Perhaps the most common symbol of charity seen in the colonial and pre-colonial narrations is the roadside shelter for travelers, called a Choultry or Chatram.
In the towns, as well as in most of the villages, are Choultries or public buildings for the reception of travellers, which were erected and endowed by the munificence of the prince, the generosity of some rich individual, or, not uncommonly, in consequence of some pious vow. A Brahman resides near, who furnishes the needy traveller with food, and a mat to lie upon; and contiguous to them is a tank or well, that those who halt, may have it in their power to perform their ablutions before they eat, or proceed on their journey.
…It is a usual charity with the natives who can afford it, to station persons during this season (summer) at the different Choulteries, to give gruel made of rice to all passengers who may choose it; and they even erect temporary Choulteries, or sheds, at short distances from each other, that those who are likely to be overcome by the heat may find places to repose in.
— SKETCHES CHIEFLY RELATING TO THE HISTORY, RELIGION, LEARNING, AND MANNERS, OF THE HINDOO, Q Craufurd, 1791.
A more detailed description of Choultries – and their various responsibilities – is found in a letter written by Raja Sarabhoji of Thanjavur to the incoming British Resident Agent about the charity expenses and purposes. It was written, perhaps, to temper the British tendency to demand an ever increasing revenue from the kingdoms for themselves, in the process hampering a duty that was considered universally good and sacred.
From the first of my ancestors, regular grants, with the seal attached to them were made of the lands whether in Servamanium or Srotrium which were assigned to individuals for charitable purposes, except when Chatrums or other donations for charitable uses have been given to the queens of the royal family. In these cases grants have not been made. The reason appears to be that the reigning Rajah was very certain that none of his own ministers or those of his sons or successors, would require to see the grant by which the queens possessed the land which has been assigned to them for charitable purposes, and consequently these possession (s) have been held by perwangy alone.
The ground along the sea shore where these charitable institutions are the most numerous, is of a very inferior quality. But it is also the road to Ramiserum and forty thousand persons from all parts of India, from Banares, and, Delhe, Aurangabad and Poona pass and repass every year. For the accomodation of these travellers principally, the Chetrums have been established, and to each of them pagodas, choultries, and schools are annexed. I will now explain to you the nature and extent of the charities dispensed by them. All travellers from the Bramin to the Pariar inclusive , pilgrims of every description including jogues, jungums, ateets and byragies are fed with boiled rice. Those who do not chuse to eat the boiled rice receive it unboiled with spices &c. These distributions continue till midnight when a bell is rung and proclamation made requiring all those who have not been fed to appear and take the rice prepared for them.
The travellers who may be unable to proceed in their journey are fed as long as they remain at the Chetrum. In each chetrum a teacher to each of the four vedums is appointed, and a school-master and doctors, skillful in the care of diseases, swellings, and the poison of reptiles; all the orphans of strangers who may come to the chetrum are placed under the care of the school-master. They are also fed three times a day, and once in four days they are annointed with oil. They receive medicine when they require it; cloths also are given to them and the utmost attention paid to them. They are instructed in the sciences to which they may express a preference, and after having obtained a competent knowledge of them the expences of their marriage are defrayed.
Travellers who fall sick at the chetrum or before their arrival, receive medicine, and the diet proper for them, and are attended with respect and kindness untill their recovery.
The obsequies of those who die during their residence at the chetrum are performed according to the rites of their cast.
Milk is provided for infants; pregnant women are entertained with kindness, and if they happen to be delivered at the chetrum, their expenses are defrayed, medicines are given to them and they are permitted to remain in the chetrum three months after their delivery.
Those who apply to the chetrum and state their inability to defray the expence of receiving the Braminical thread, of their marriage, or of the performance of the ceremonies, subsequent to their father’s death, receive a sum of money proportionate to the occasion.
As the lands annexed to the chetrums is in general very poor, it happens frequently from a deficiency of rain, that they do not produce sufficient for the expences. When this is the case my anxiety to prevent any diminution of these excellent charities, which I consider as the most honourable appendage of my dignity, has always induced me to send to them from the circuar both grain and money sufficient to make up the deficiency. After Mr. Harris was appointed to the management of that soubah, he must remember that I applied to him for a considerable quantity of paddy at different times for the use of the chetrums.
The chetrums are not of recent foundation. The chetrum of Munmaligoody and some others were founded by my ancestor Pretaupsing above forty years ago, and have continued to distribute their charities ever since. My father the late Tulsagee Rajah, twenty five or thirty years ago founded the chetrums of Minmushale, Salutehnahoapoor, and Rajyamul. None of these chetrams were founded in the reign of Amersing or by me since my accession. Although these charitable institutions did not originate with me, I consider them as attached to my house, and essential to my reputation and happiness. The Tanjore country is celebrated over all world for its charities, it is called Dhermraje, and I consider the reputation which reverts upon me through all countries from this appellation, as the most honorable distinction of my rank. The revenues appropriated to the support of the charities of my ancestors, and my Tulsajee Rajah, have never been included in the public revenue of the country. They invariably cherished and supported the charities. It is my earnest wish to do the same. The superintendence of them has always descended from the older to the younger queen. It has remained in the hands of the senior until her death and then descended to the wife of the reigning Rajah. I have a perfect confidence that this custom of my ancestors will not be deviated from , and that I shall not suffer the disgrace of seeing it abolished in my reign.
The perwangys issued by Pretaupsing and Tulsajee previous to the capture of the fort cannot be found. After the capture of the fort the Nabob plundered the place, and carried off all the records, in the the dufter. From this circumstance no records prior to that date remain. After the restoration of the fort, the late Tulsajee Rajah issued new perwangee for all the ancient charitable institutions as well those established by himself. These are in my possession.
There is a regular grant also for Chetoobaba chetrum.
What can I write more.
— A letter from His Excellency Serfojee Rajah of Tanjore to British Government: 20th January 1801
In a separate report, the British collector listed a total of twelve ports whose revenues went to support different Choultries, some under the charge of the Queen of Thanjavur, while others were under other local Rajahs, ministers and religious institutions including one under a local church.
The details provided by Raja Sarabhoji clearly shows that the Choultries went beyond just being rest houses for travelers. Among their responsibilities were taking care of the sick and vulnerable, educating children, religious support to those that needed it. No one or no community was left behind, as the justifiably proud Raja states. Queens and even mistresses of kings built and supported choultries themselves or asked for them as a memorial when they passed away, as this site explains.
There are also descriptions from earlier times that describe several forms of charity practiced by kings, that prove these were not a new development. Here’s is the Chinese traveler Hiuen Tsiang’s description of the kingdom of Shiladitya (Harshavardhana) from the seventh century AD.
In all the highways of the towns and villages throughout India he erected hospices, provided with food and drink, and stationed there physicians, with medicines for travellers and poor persons round about, to be given without any stint. …
Once in five years he held the great assembly called Moksha. He emptied his treasuries to give all away in charity, only reserving the soldiers’ arms, which were unfit to give as alms. Every year he assembled the Shramanas from all countries, and on the third and seventh days he bestowed on them in charity the four kinds of alms (viz., food, drink, medicine, clothing). …
At the present time Shiladitya-raja, after the example of his ancestors, distributes here (in the city of Prayag) in one day the accumulated wealth of five years. Having collected in this space of the charity enclosure immense piles of wealth and jewels, on the first day he adorns in a very sumptuous way a statue of Buddha, and then offers to it the most costly jewels. Afterwards he offers his charity to the residentiary priests; afterwards to the priests (from a distance) who are present; afterwards to the men of distinguished talent; afterwards to the heretics who live in the place, following the ways of the world; and lastly, to the widows and bereaved, orphans and desolate, poor and mendicants.
Thus, according to this order, having exhausted his treasuries and given food in charity, he next gives away his head diadem and his jewelled necklaces. From the first to the last he shows no regret, and when he has finished he cries with joy, “Well done! now all that I have has entered into incorruptible and imperishable treasuries.”
— Xuan Zang (Hiuen Tsiang), Buddhist Records of the Western World, Book V
There are descriptions from the Puranas, Ithihasas (Ramayana and Mahabharatha) and other language literature that indicate that these forms of charity were not unique to Harshavardhana. Clearly, compassion and charity were seen as a prerequisite for a king to be viewed in positive light.
Furthermore, institutional charity was supported not just by the royalty; a portion of the produce of each village was reserved for charity as part of the village’s internal expense. These supported the poor, those without an income such as widows, mendicants, religious and secular institutions etc. Wealthy citizens also engaged in charity and building public infrastructure useful to entire community. There is no indication that these were restricted to any particular sections or religions in India – people of all faiths supported these acts towards everyone else without any signs of sectarianism.
In every part of India are to be found monuments of the munificence and charity of private individuals, in the shape of reservoirs for water, pagodas, wells, or caravanseras; but of whatever description these may be, they are invariably intended for the benefit of mankind. He who expends thousands in the formation of a tank which shall supply with water thousands of his fellow-creatures, who would otherwise be liable to suffer greatest extremities from drought, surely deserves the name of a benefactor of the human race; as also does he that builds a house for the shelter and convenience of travellers in some desolate spot where no other accomodation is to be found. Works of public charity are so much esteemed by the Hindoos, that those who cannot accomplish them on a large scale, will sometimes hire a person to sit under a tree by the road-side with vessels of cool water for the supply of thirsty passengers; or will monthly, on a particular day, give a quantity of grain to every mendicant who may present himself at their doors. Yet the detractors of the Hindoos do not hesitate to assert that all their acts of this kind proceed from ostentation. I will reply to this only by remarking, that it would be well if a similar spirit of ostentation could be introduced into Europe, since it is attended with such happy effects in Hindostan. But a man may travel from the southern extremity of European continent to the polar regions without observing one monument of charity or utility which has been devised or erected by private munificence. What European nobleman or wealthy citizen ever thinks of expending his money in the construction of any work of art which shall benefit a whole town or village, or call forth the blessings and admiration of the passing traveler?
— European Colonies in Various Parts of the World Viewed in Their Social, Moral, and Physical Condition. (Vol. II) By John Howison, 1834.
… Culam, which is formed by digging out the earth; and is destined for supplying the inhabitants with water, for domestic purposes. In this country the Culams are very frequently lined on all the four sides, with cut stone, and are the most elegant works of the natives. By making tanks and choultries, the wealthy Hindus endeavour to procure a lasting good name; and they certainly deserve it, as the sums they expend in this way are very considerable, and the utilities of the works is very great.
— A Journey from Madras Through the Countries of Mysore, Canara, and Malabar. Francis Buchanan, M.D., 1807
Compassion was also not reserved just for the Indians and Hindus; India provided refuge to all persecuted people in the ancient and medieval world. India was the first and perhaps only civilization in the world to provide a home to Jews, Christians, Muslims and Parsees when they were actively persecuted and victimized in their own nations. Compassion and empathy were also extended to all living beings, including plants – an act, curiously, criticized by European Christians who saw it as against their doctrine of human superiority.
Under the practical influence of the doctrine of transmigration, you find great numbers who are exceedingly careful with regard to animal life-so careful that they undo the original ordinance altogether. That ordinance was, that the power of man, and the dominion of man, should be over all the creatures of the earth; but go to India, and you will find tribes of men that allow the meanest, and humblest, and most unnameable of creatures, to have power and dominion over them. So scrupulous and fearful are they in this respect, that they set up hospitals for their animals, and departments in those hospitals, for insects, and all kinds of minute creatures, from which they will not take one particle of life.
— India and its Evangelization, A Lecture by the Rev. Alexander Duff, D.D., Delivered Before the Young Men’s Christian Association, in Exeter Hall, December 17, 1850.
There is among the Brachhmans in India a sect of philosophers who adopt an independent life, and abstain from animal food and all victuals cooked by fire, being content to subsist upon fruits, which they do not so much as gather from the trees, but pick up when they have dropped to the ground, and their drink is the water of the river Tagabena.
— Megesthanes, Indica (4th century BC).
Megesthanes’s description shows that these were very old practices, predating Buddha. Other descriptions from European visitors to India in the Medieval Ages tell of carrying these to extremes among spiritual communities such as the Brahmins, stating that they avoided even spices that gave the appearance of meat or blood. They also describe individuals who purchased trapped animals and bird from hunters and even fish from fishermen and released them back into the wild.
That the Indians were able to organize and set up charitable systems in times of distress is also evident. Contradicting his own views, the author of The Famine Campaign goes on to describe the efforts of common Indian citizens spontaneously coming together during the 1876 famine. The beneficiaries were not just the people affected by the famine, but cattle too which was viewed as critical to Indian agrarian culture.
Considering the proclivities of the people of India, it was only natural when, in 1876, distress became severe that private charity should be, apparently, more prompt than Government in providing food for the famishing. The same sights were characteristic of the chief cities in each of the Presidencies and the province affected. In Bombay the benevolent were early on the alert, and, throughout the whole period of distress, did exceedingly good service ; in Madras rich Hindus spent large sums in feeding many destitute and wandering people, but in the chief city their generosity was checked by Government, but not entirely stopped : in the mofussil, scattered efforts were made by small committees, assisted by Government, but the efforts were few and fitful ; in Mysore, private efforts were exceedingly prompt and did efficient service. … and it was in Sholapur that the most strenuous efforts were made by private liberality to mitigate suffering. …
The Sarvajanik Sabha (of Mumbai) was also prompt to do much useful work in the way of voluntarily relieving distress.
Bombay benevolence, however, was not confined to succouring human beings; an endeavour was made to save the cattle also. A fund, called the Bombay Cattlesaving Fund was raised, and by means of it many cattle were saved. …
A contractor at Bombay, Mr. Nagoo Sayajee, lent the Sholapur Committee 10,000 rs. to be employed in buying grain at Bombay, and selling it in the distressed districts plus carriage and expenses only. The cost of distribution and organisation he also bore.
Clearly, the charitable nature of the Indians was not a myth found only in ancient religious texts, but a living practice and part of the Indian culture. There were various forms of these acts, some for needy sections, while others for the community as a whole. The narrations across history also show a marked difference between European Christians, who viewed some of the recipients as “professional beggars” and any charity to them as being an “useless expense”, not to speak of their criticism of compassion to animals, on one hand, and Hindu Indians who viewed any form of compassion and charity to all living species as necessary parts of their culture and religion. It is also a feature that the charitable practices in India were not tied to or reserved for any one section of the population. Rather, it was seen among all sections across the country, even in ancient times. It is rather ironic that this social charity in India was forcibly curtailed during the British rule through newly developed laws, even as they professed their admiration of this feature among the Indians.
Beyond what are stated in the Aumanie account the inhabitants should be restrained from separating any charitable (p.6915) and religious gifts from the public store, and be allowed to make them only from their private shares after fulfilling their duty to the Zemeendar.
— IOR : P/286/41 : Pro 7.8.1800: pp 6875-6916, C Harris, Collector, Manargoody, 23 June 1800
The colonial rulers even expressed satisfaction with the redirection of wealth away from charity to European consumerism.
I need scarcely mention the increasing demand which almost all who possess the means, evince for various articles of convenience and luxury purely European. It is in many cases very remarkable. Even in the celebration of their most sacred festivals, a great change is said to be perceptible in Calcutta. Much of what used, in old times, to be distributed amongst beggars and Brahmins, is now, in many instances, devoted to the ostentatious entertainment of Europeans; and generally the amount expends in useless alms is stated to have been greatly curtailed.
— William Bentinck, May 30, 1829
But the lessons go beyond just learning about a more compassionate culture. We are constantly being informed that humans are exploitative by nature; and that compassion and organized charity are a modern development, and require strong laws and administrative backing to overcome the individual’s reluctance to share. Colonial narratives also view charity as an outcome of Christianity. This is not surprising since the current idea of societies – at least among the educated – is based on Greek and Roman civilizations. Their histories indicate a somewhat predatory society that developed a strong hierarchy where the weakest were often exploited and without any social support. Even developments such as Christianity which on the surface promoted compassion, only served as a cover for exploitation of their own and other societies around the world.
The history of other civilizations such as India paint a very different picture. In colonial descriptions these societies were (and are still) seen as primitive and not worth learning about. And to be sure, societies like India’s had and have severe faults. But the descriptions above show the presence of universal compassion and empathy as a natural human trait in these societies; that they are features of social and spiritual development encouraged by all spiritual religions; and that it is possible to have administrative and social features to strengthen them and make them systemic and widespread. They provide hope for all of us that it is possible to have pluralistic compassionate societies where not everything is competitive and the gains of any one section can benefit all. It would also be good for Indians to learn about this facet of their culture and revive these practices, which seems to be ignored currently by many educated and wealthy citizens.